The transportation sector is undergoing a significant transformation as the urgency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from internal combustion engine vehicles becomes increasingly critical.

Electric vehicles (EVs) are recognized as essential for lowering emissions and enhancing air quality, prompting ongoing research that employs Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate their environmental impacts.

In 2023, global sales of electric vehicles reached 14 million, accounting for nearly 20% of total vehicle sales, with projections suggesting this number could rise to 26 million by 2030.

Currently, permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) dominate the EV market, comprising about 90% of sales, although there is growing interest in alternative motor types like switched reluctance motors (SRMs) and induction motors (IMs).

PMSMs primarily utilize rare earth element (REE)-based magnets, such as neodymium-iron-boron, which, while offering high performance, raise environmental and geopolitical concerns due to their reliance on mining practices concentrated in China.

The use of REEs in permanent magnets presents significant sustainability challenges, including environmental impacts and supply chain vulnerabilities, alongside concerns regarding the sustainability of copper windings, which remain the primary material for motor windings due to their excellent conductivity.

Environmental issues related to copper mining, particularly greenhouse gas emissions, have led to a growing focus on 'green' copper production practices within the industry.

In response to these challenges, automakers are exploring alternatives to REE-based permanent magnets, including REE-free magnets, soft magnetic composites, and carbon nanotube windings.

The recycling and recovery of rare earth elements from end-of-life products is becoming increasingly important, especially given that less than 1% of REEs were recycled in 2018, while demand is expected to surge in the coming years.

The sustainability of materials used in EV motors, particularly PMSMs, is a critical area of research, linking technological advancements with environmental, social, and economic sustainability.

Assessing the sustainability of electric vehicles involves examining three phases: fabrication, lifetime usage, and disposal/recycling, which yield mixed results when compared to internal combustion engine vehicles.

Conducting a comprehensive LCA of electric motors is essential to quantify their environmental impacts throughout their entire lifecycle, from raw material extraction to end-of-life disposal.